1. A literary critic argues that a poet’s later work is more politically engaged than the poet’s early work. The critic notes that in the later collection, 14 of 40 poems explicitly mention elections, labor strikes, or war, while in the early collection, 2 of 35 poems do so. The critic concludes that the poet became more politically engaged over time.
Which of the following is the best evaluation of the critic’s reasoning?
2. The information in the final paragraph about the 'genetic ancientness' of chemosynthetic bacteria relates to the information in the first paragraph primarily by:
3. Which of the following details from the passage best supports the idea that the narrator internalized his aunt's teachings?
4. It can reasonably be inferred from the passage that a major advantage of using structural defenses against bacteria, rather than chemical ones, is that structural defenses:
5. A wildlife biologist argues that installing wildlife crossings over highways increases the local population of a threatened mammal. The biologist reports that two years after three crossings were built, camera traps recorded a 60% increase in the number of individual mammals detected in the region. The biologist concludes that the crossings caused the population increase and recommends building more crossings to restore the species.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the biologist’s argument?
6. It can reasonably be inferred from the passage that a major advantage of using structural defenses against bacteria, rather than chemical ones, is that structural defenses:
7. A sociologist claims that social media usage leads to decreased face-to-face interactions. The claim is based on a study of social media habits. A flaw in the author's reasoning is that the author:
8. A museum director argues that extending weekend hours will increase total annual attendance. The director notes that during a three-month pilot in which the museum stayed open two extra hours on Saturdays, Saturday attendance rose by 22% compared with the same months the previous year. The director concludes that the extension will increase total annual attendance, not merely shift visits to Saturdays, and recommends making the change permanent. The director’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
9. An article claims that increasing urban green spaces reduces crime rates. The claim is based on data from cities that have implemented green projects. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
10. A health article claims that people who drink green tea daily have a lower risk of heart disease. The claim is based on a survey of green tea drinkers. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
11. A fashion industry report indicates that sustainable practices increase brand loyalty. The report is based on consumer surveys from eco-friendly brands. Which of the following best describes the author's argument?
12. A report states that countries investing in education see higher economic growth. The report draws on historical data from various nations. Which of the following best describes the author's argument?
13. A recent study suggests that students who study in groups perform better on exams than those who study alone. The study concludes that group study sessions enhance students' understanding. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?
14. A report claims that a new diet leads to significant weight loss. The claim is based on a study where participants followed the diet for three months. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
15. A city planner argues that converting an underused parking lot into a small public plaza will increase nearby retail sales. The planner cites a case in another city where retail sales within two blocks rose 12% in the year after a plaza opened. The planner concludes that the plaza caused the sales increase and will likely do so in the planner’s city as well.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the planner’s argument?
16. A political scientist claims that negative campaign advertising decreases voter turnout. The scientist cites an analysis of 50 competitive elections: races with higher proportions of negative ads had, on average, 4 percentage points lower turnout than races with fewer negative ads. The scientist concludes that reducing negative ads would increase turnout. A flaw in the scientist’s reasoning is that the scientist:
17. A nutrition writer claims that eating breakfast improves academic performance among adolescents. The writer cites a school that began offering free breakfast: average math grades rose from 78 to 82 within a semester, and attendance improved by 3%. The writer concludes that breakfast caused the grade increase and urges all schools to adopt similar programs. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the writer’s conclusion?
18. An education researcher claims that later school start times improve academic performance. She compares two neighboring districts: District X shifted its start time from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. in 2022, while District Y kept 7:30 a.m. In 2023, District X’s average math scores rose by 6 points, while District Y’s rose by 1 point. The researcher concludes that the start-time change explains the difference. A flaw in the researcher’s reasoning is that the researcher:
19. A city transportation report argues that installing protected bike lanes reduced traffic congestion. The report notes that after 18 miles of protected lanes were added between 2021 and 2023, average weekday car travel times on three major corridors fell by 9%. It also cites a survey in which 22% of respondents said they began biking to work more often after the lanes were installed. The report concludes that protected bike lanes <u>cause</u> reduced congestion and recommends expanding the network citywide. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the report’s argument?
20. Which of the following best describes the argument that urbanization leads to improved public health?
21. A study concludes that students who participate in extracurricular activities have higher GPAs. The conclusion is drawn from data collected from various schools. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?
22. Which assumption underlies the argument that tourism boosts local economies?
23. Which of the following best describes the argument that a high-protein diet aids weight loss?
24. A political scientist claims that negative campaign advertising decreases voter turnout. The scientist cites an analysis of 50 competitive elections: races with higher proportions of negative ads had, on average, 4 percentage points lower turnout than races with fewer negative ads. The scientist concludes that reducing negative ads would increase turnout. A flaw in the scientist’s reasoning is that the scientist:
25. A professor argues that online education is as effective as traditional classroom learning. The argument is based on student performance data from online courses. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
26. A historian argues that the Industrial Revolution was primarily driven by technological innovation, citing numerous inventions of that era. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
27. A city planner argues that planting more street trees will reduce urban crime. The planner cites a report comparing 20 city blocks: blocks with higher tree canopy coverage had 15% fewer reported property crimes than blocks with sparse canopy. The planner concludes that increasing tree planting on low-canopy blocks will cause crime to fall and proposes reallocating part of the policing budget to tree-planting. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the planner’s proposal?
28. A marine ecologist argues that sunscreen chemicals are a major cause of coral bleaching at a popular beach. The ecologist notes that bleaching incidents are highest near swimming areas and that water samples there show higher concentrations of certain sunscreen compounds. The ecologist concludes that restricting sunscreen use will significantly reduce bleaching. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the ecologist’s argument?
29. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument that meditation reduces stress?
30. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument that remote work increases productivity?
31. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument that space exploration is essential for scientific advancement?
32. A nutrition scientist claims that a new high-fiber snack bar improves gut health. In a four-week trial, 40 participants ate the bar daily and reported fewer digestive discomfort episodes by the end of the study. The scientist concludes that the bar caused the improvement. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the scientist’s argument?
33. A wildlife agency biologist argues that installing “wildlife crossings” over highways will significantly reduce local deer population declines. The biologist notes that in one region, deer counts stabilized two years after two crossings were built, and roadkill reports fell by 40%. The biologist concludes that crossings are the primary reason the deer population stopped declining and recommends building them statewide.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the biologist’s argument?
34. A university administrator argues that mandatory attendance policies improve learning in large lecture courses. She cites one course in which attendance became mandatory and the average final exam score rose from 71 to 79 the following semester. She concludes that requiring attendance will improve learning in all large lectures. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the administrator’s argument?
35. A political scientist argues that compulsory voting increases political moderation. The scientist cites cross-national data showing that countries with compulsory voting have, on average, fewer seats held by extremist parties than countries without compulsory voting. The scientist concludes that adopting compulsory voting would reduce extremism in any democracy.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the scientist’s argument?
36. A city planner argues that planting more street trees will reduce urban crime. The planner cites a report comparing 20 city blocks: blocks with higher tree canopy coverage had 15% fewer reported property crimes than blocks with sparse canopy. The planner concludes that increasing tree planting on low-canopy blocks will cause crime to fall and proposes reallocating part of the policing budget to tree-planting. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the planner’s proposal?
37. A sociologist argues that remote work increases civic engagement. She reports that in a survey of 1,000 adults, those who worked remotely at least three days per week were 15 percentage points more likely to report volunteering monthly than those who worked fully on-site. She concludes that remote work causes people to volunteer more because it reduces commuting time. Which assumption underlies the sociologist’s reasoning?
38. A technology magazine states that smartphones with larger screens are more popular among consumers. This conclusion is drawn from sales data showing higher sales for larger models. A flaw in the author's reasoning is that the author:
39. The author's discussion of manufacturing innovations in paragraph 3 and the social changes in paragraphs 4–6 together suggest that:
40. A sociologist argues that remote work increases employee productivity. The sociologist cites a survey of 600 employees at one technology firm: employees who worked remotely at least three days per week reported completing 12% more tasks per week than employees who worked mostly on-site. The sociologist concludes that remote work causes higher productivity and recommends that most firms shift to remote-first policies. Which of the following best describes the author’s argument?
41. A journalist argues that countries with high levels of press freedom have stronger democracies. The argument is based on international rankings of press freedom and democratic health. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
42. A financial analyst argues that diversifying investments reduces risk. The argument is based on historical data showing diversified portfolios have lower volatility. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
43. A technology blog claims that using a password manager makes people less secure online. The blog cites an informal poll of its readers: among 300 respondents who used a password manager, 28% reported experiencing an account takeover in the last year, compared with 16% among 300 respondents who did not. The blog concludes that password managers increase the risk of account takeovers. A flaw in the blog’s reasoning is that the blog:
44. A public health columnist claims that replacing sugary drinks in workplace vending machines with unsweetened options will reduce employees’ overall sugar intake. The columnist cites a study of one company where vending machine sales of sugary drinks fell by 70% after the change. The columnist concludes that employees consumed less sugar overall as a result. The author’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
45. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the claim that online learning is equally effective as traditional classroom learning?
46. A flaw in the argument that telecommuting benefits the environment is that the author:
47. The author's conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions about climate change and economic growth?
48. A literary scholar argues that a novelist’s later works are artistically superior to the novelist’s early works because the later works contain more complex sentences. The scholar reports counting sentences in two early novels and two later novels, finding that the average sentence length increased from 14 words to 21 words. The scholar concludes that the later novels are therefore more artistically accomplished. Which of the following best identifies an unstated assumption in the scholar’s argument?
49. A nutritionist claims that children who eat breakfast perform better academically. The claim is based on observations in several schools. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?
50. A literary scholar argues that a novelist’s later works are artistically superior to the novelist’s early works because the later works contain more complex sentences. The scholar reports counting sentences in two early novels and two later novels, finding that the average sentence length increased from 14 words to 21 words. The scholar concludes that the later novels are therefore more artistically accomplished. Which of the following best identifies an unstated assumption in the scholar’s argument?
51. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the claim that globalization leads to cultural homogenization?
52. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning that exercise improves mental health?
53. Which assumption underlies the argument that early childhood education improves future academic performance?
54. A political scientist argues that televised debates rarely change election outcomes. She cites data from five recent elections showing that the polling leader two weeks before the final debate won in all five cases. She concludes debates have little influence on voters. Which of the following best identifies a limitation of the political scientist’s evidence?
55. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the claim that a vegetarian diet is healthier than a meat-based diet?
56. The author's conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions about artificial intelligence and job creation?
57. The author's conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions about renewable energy and carbon emissions?
58. A climate policy essay argues that subsidizing home heat pumps will significantly reduce national greenhouse gas emissions. The essay notes that residential heating accounts for 12% of national emissions and that heat pumps can cut household heating emissions by about 50% when replacing older systems. The author concludes that a subsidy program will reduce national emissions by roughly 6%. The author’s reasoning is questionable because it:
59. An art critic argues that a painter’s later works are more emotionally powerful than the early works. The critic notes that viewers in a gallery spent an average of 40 seconds longer in front of later paintings than early paintings, and that the later works use darker colors. The critic concludes that the later works are therefore more emotionally powerful. A flaw in the critic’s reasoning is that the critic:
60. An education policy essay claims that replacing printed textbooks with tablets improves student learning. The author notes that in a district that adopted tablets, average standardized reading scores increased from 71 to 77 over three years. The author also reports that students used the tablets for at least 90 minutes per day in class and concludes that tablets were the primary cause of the score gains. The essay recommends statewide tablet adoption. Which assumption underlies the author’s reasoning?
61. A public health columnist claims that installing outdoor air-quality sensors in neighborhoods leads to measurable health improvements. The columnist points to a city that installed sensors and, over the next year, reported a 12% decline in asthma-related emergency room visits. The columnist argues that because sensors provide residents with real-time pollution information, people avoid outdoor exposure during high-pollution hours, thereby reducing asthma attacks. The columnist concludes that other cities should install sensors to improve respiratory health.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the columnist’s argument?
62. A sociologist claims that remote work reduces employees’ collaboration. The sociologist surveyed 500 employees at one technology company and found that those who worked remotely at least four days per week reported, on average, fewer “spontaneous problem-solving conversations” than those who worked in the office full-time. The sociologist concludes that companies should limit remote work to preserve collaboration.
The author’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
63. A historian argues that a particular medieval city’s economic growth was primarily caused by its adoption of a new legal code. The historian notes that the legal code standardized contracts and reduced disputes, and that within fifty years of adoption, surviving tax records show a 40% increase in market fees collected. The historian further cites one merchant’s letter praising the predictability of local courts. The conclusion is that the legal reform, more than any other factor, drove the city’s economic expansion.
Which assumption underlies the historian’s reasoning?
64. A museum director argues that extending museum hours on Friday nights will increase total weekly attendance. As evidence, the director notes that during a three-month trial, Friday-night attendance averaged 600 visitors, whereas the museum previously averaged 150 visitors during the last two hours of Friday operation. The director concludes that the extended hours created 450 additional weekly visitors and therefore should be made permanent.
Which of the following best describes the director’s argument?
65. A neuroscientist claims that listening to instrumental music while studying improves memory consolidation. In a lab study, 40 college students studied a list of 50 word pairs; half then listened to instrumental music for 20 minutes, while half sat in silence for 20 minutes. On a recall test the next day, the music group averaged 38 correct pairs, while the silence group averaged 34. The neuroscientist concludes that instrumental music enhances memory consolidation for students in general.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the neuroscientist’s conclusion?
66. A historian argues that the rapid spread of a 19th-century political pamphlet was primarily due to its simple writing style. The historian notes that the pamphlet used short sentences and avoided technical terms, and that it was reprinted in at least 40 newspapers within a year. The historian concludes that simplicity of style was the main cause of its wide circulation. Which of the following best describes the historian’s argument?
67. A city planner argues that planting street trees reduces summer heat in dense neighborhoods. She cites measurements showing that on one avenue, midday sidewalk temperatures were $3.5^\circ\text{C}$ lower under tree canopy than in nearby unshaded blocks. She concludes that expanding street-tree planting will meaningfully reduce neighborhood heat exposure. Which of the following best describes the planner’s argument?
68. A psychology professor argues that brief mindfulness exercises before exams reduce test anxiety. In one class, students who completed a 5-minute guided exercise reported an average anxiety rating of 3.1 out of 7, while students who did not reported 4.0. The professor concludes the exercise caused the reduction. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the professor’s argument?
69. A museum director argues that extending weekend hours will increase total attendance without increasing operating costs per visitor. The director notes that during a two-month trial, the museum stayed open two additional hours on Saturdays and Sundays. Weekend attendance increased by 18%, and total staffing hours stayed the same because staff schedules were rearranged. The director concludes that the museum should permanently extend weekend hours.
A flaw in the director’s reasoning is that the director:
70. A linguist argues that children learn new vocabulary more effectively from stories than from word lists. The linguist reports an experiment with 60 second-graders: one group heard a short story containing 20 unfamiliar words, while another group studied the same 20 words in a list with definitions. One week later, the story group correctly defined 14 words on average, while the list group correctly defined 10. The linguist concludes that story-based instruction is generally superior for vocabulary learning in elementary school.
The linguist’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
71. A city librarian argues that installing more public computers in branches will increase job placement among unemployed patrons. The librarian notes that after one branch doubled its computers from 10 to 20, the number of patrons using the job-search website on those computers increased from 300 to 520 per month. The librarian also reports that, in a follow-up survey of 40 patrons who used the computers for job searching, 18 said they found a job within three months. The librarian concludes that adding computers directly increases job placement and should be prioritized over expanding resume workshops.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the librarian’s conclusion?
72. An environmental columnist claims that planting street trees reduces summer electricity use by lowering neighborhood temperatures. The columnist cites a study of 12 neighborhoods showing that areas with higher tree canopy had, on average, 9% lower residential electricity consumption in July than areas with low canopy. The columnist concludes that increasing tree planting in low-canopy neighborhoods will reduce their electricity use.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the columnist’s argument?
73. An environmental commentator claims that banning single-use plastic bags reduces ocean plastic pollution. As evidence, the commentator notes that after one coastal nation implemented a bag ban, beach-cleanup volunteers collected 18% fewer plastic bags per kilometer than in the prior year. The commentator concludes that similar bans elsewhere would substantially reduce ocean plastic overall. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the commentator’s argument?
74. An education policy essay claims that replacing printed textbooks with tablets improves student learning. The author notes that in a district that adopted tablets, average standardized reading scores increased from 71 to 77 over three years. The author also reports that students used the tablets for at least 90 minutes per day in class and concludes that tablets were the primary cause of the score gains. The essay recommends statewide tablet adoption. Which assumption underlies the author’s reasoning?
75. A flaw in the argument that electric cars are more environmentally friendly is that:
76. Which assumption underlies the argument that increasing urban green spaces reduces local air pollution levels?
77. A flaw in the argument that universal healthcare improves public health is that the author:
78. A flaw in the argument that renewable energy reduces energy costs is that the author:
79. Which of the following best describes the argument that technology increases workplace efficiency?
80. A wellness study claims that spending time in nature reduces stress. The claim is based on participants' self-reports of stress levels before and after nature excursions. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
81. A literary scholar claims that a novel’s popularity is best explained by its use of an unreliable narrator. The scholar points out that the narrator contradicts earlier statements and that the novel has remained on bestseller lists for months. The scholar concludes that the narrative technique is the primary reason readers keep buying the book. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the scholar’s argument?
82. An archaeologist argues that a newly excavated settlement was primarily a trade hub rather than an agricultural village. She cites the discovery of many nonlocal pottery fragments and a wide variety of metal goods, but relatively few farming tools. She concludes that trade, not farming, was the settlement’s main economic activity. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the archaeologist’s argument?
83. A museum director argues that adding interactive digital labels will increase visitor learning. In a pilot exhibit, visitors who used the labels answered 78% of quiz questions correctly, while visitors who did not use them answered 62% correctly. The director concludes that installing interactive labels in all galleries will substantially improve learning for most visitors. Which assumption underlies the director’s reasoning?
84. A company memo argues that switching to a four-day workweek will increase productivity. It notes that in a three-month trial, output per employee rose by 12% and sick days fell by 18%. The memo concludes that adopting the four-day schedule permanently will raise productivity companywide. The author’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
85. A conservation biologist argues that a recent increase in a coastal bird population was caused by stricter fishing regulations. She notes that after a no-trawl zone was established in 2019, the bird population in the region rose from 1,200 to 1,650 by 2024. She also reports that the birds feed on small fish that trawling often reduces. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the biologist’s argument?
86. An ecologist claims that reintroducing wolves to a national park will increase biodiversity. The ecologist reasons that wolves reduce deer populations, which lowers overgrazing. With less grazing pressure, shrubs and young trees recover, providing habitat for birds and small mammals. The ecologist cites one well-known park where, after wolves returned, deer numbers declined and some riparian vegetation increased. Therefore, the ecologist concludes that wolf reintroduction is likely to increase biodiversity in any similar park.
Which of the following best describes the ecologist’s argument?
87. A psychologist claims that daily mindfulness meditation reduces workplace burnout. The psychologist cites a study of 60 employees at one technology company: those who chose to attend optional 15-minute guided meditation sessions each workday for six weeks reported a 20% decrease on a self-rated burnout scale. Employees who did not attend reported no change. The psychologist concludes that employers should implement mandatory daily meditation to reduce burnout across their workforce.
The author’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
88. A historian argues that a particular 18th-century port city experienced rapid economic growth primarily because it adopted standardized weights and measures earlier than neighboring cities. The historian notes that merchants’ account books from the decade after standardization show fewer recorded disputes over quantities, and shipping records show a 22% increase in outbound cargo volume. The historian concludes that standardization was the main driver of the city’s growth.
Which of the following best describes the author’s argument?
89. A public policy analyst argues that expanding protected bike lanes will reduce citywide traffic congestion. The analyst cites data from eight neighborhoods that installed protected bike lanes between 2018 and 2022: in the year after installation, average car travel times on the nearest major corridor decreased by 6% compared with the year before. The analyst adds that bicycle counts on those corridors rose by 18%, suggesting some commuters switched from driving to cycling. Because the same pattern occurred in six of the eight neighborhoods, the analyst concludes that protected bike lanes are an effective congestion-reduction strategy and should be expanded citywide.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the analyst’s argument?
90. A climate communication researcher claims that emphasizing local climate impacts is the best way to increase public support for climate policies. The researcher cites a survey in which respondents who read a brief article about local flooding risks were more likely to endorse a proposed municipal resilience tax than respondents who read an article about global temperature trends. The researcher concludes that climate campaigns should focus primarily on local impacts because doing so generally increases policy support more effectively than global framing.
Which assumption underlies the researcher’s reasoning?
91. A materials engineer argues that a new biodegradable plastic is suitable for widespread food packaging. In laboratory tests, the plastic maintained tensile strength comparable to conventional plastic after being stored for 30 days at room temperature and 40% humidity. The engineer also reports that in industrial composting conditions, the plastic lost 90% of its mass within 12 weeks. Therefore, the engineer concludes that switching to this plastic will substantially reduce environmental pollution from packaging waste without compromising performance.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the engineer’s argument?
92. A technology columnist argues that remote work increases employee productivity. The columnist points to a survey in which 64% of remote workers reported being “more productive” than when they worked in an office. The columnist concludes that companies should expand remote work to raise productivity.
A flaw in the columnist’s reasoning is that the columnist:
93. A nutrition researcher argues that replacing sugary drinks with water improves high school students’ academic performance. In one district, 120 students volunteered for a four-week program in which they were encouraged to drink only water during the school day. At the end of the program, the average math quiz score of participants rose from 78 to 83. The researcher concludes that drinking water instead of sugary beverages causes better academic performance and recommends that schools ban sugary drinks entirely.
A flaw in the researcher’s reasoning is that the researcher:
94. A linguist argues that children learn new vocabulary more effectively from printed books than from educational videos. The linguist cites an experiment in which 45 children aged 5–6 were randomly assigned to one of two conditions for two weeks: a parent read a printed storybook aloud each evening, or the child watched an educational video covering the same story and target words. On a post-test, the book group correctly defined an average of 9.2 of 12 target words, while the video group defined 7.1. The linguist concludes that printed books are inherently superior for vocabulary learning and that preschools should replace most educational videos with shared reading time.
Which of the following is the most reasonable limitation of the linguist’s conclusion?
95. A museum director claims that offering free admission on Fridays increases long-term community engagement with the museum. The director notes that after the museum began free Fridays in 2021, average Friday attendance doubled, and annual membership purchases increased by 12% in 2022 compared with 2020. The director concludes that free Fridays caused more visitors to become committed supporters and that the museum should expand free admission to two days per week. The director’s reasoning assumes, without stating, that:
Which assumption underlies the director’s reasoning?
96. A historian argues that the invention of the printing press was the primary cause of increased literacy in early modern Europe. The historian notes that book production rose dramatically after printing became widespread, and that several cities with major printing centers later reported higher rates of signatures on legal documents. Because printed materials were cheaper and more available, the historian concludes that printing was the main driver of literacy growth, outweighing other factors such as urbanization and schooling reforms.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the historian’s argument?
97. A nutrition researcher claims that a new high-fiber snack bar reduces afternoon hunger. In a small study, 25 volunteers ate the snack bar at 2 p.m. for five days and rated their hunger at 4 p.m. on a 1–10 scale. Average hunger ratings fell from 6.2 on day 1 to 4.8 on day 5. The researcher concludes that the snack bar reduces hunger.
The researcher’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
98. A university committee claims that requiring first-year students to take a seminar on study strategies will improve graduation rates. As evidence, it reports that among students who voluntarily enrolled in a pilot seminar, 78% graduated within four years, compared with 62% of students who did not enroll. The committee concludes that making the seminar mandatory will raise overall graduation rates.
Which assumption underlies the committee’s reasoning?
99. A school board member argues that replacing printed textbooks with tablets will improve student learning. The board member cites a one-semester trial in which two classes used tablets and two similar classes used printed textbooks. At the end of the semester, tablet classes averaged 6 points higher on a standardized test. The board member concludes that tablets caused the improvement and should be adopted across the district. During the trial, however, tablet classes also received two extra hours per week of technical support and training.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the board member’s conclusion?
100. A sociologist argues that remote work increases employee productivity. The sociologist cites a survey of 600 employees at one technology firm: employees who worked remotely at least three days per week reported completing 12% more tasks per week than employees who worked mostly on-site. The sociologist concludes that remote work causes higher productivity and recommends that most firms shift to remote-first policies. Which of the following best describes the author’s argument?
101. An environmental commentator claims that banning single-use plastic bags reduces ocean plastic pollution. As evidence, the commentator notes that after one coastal nation implemented a bag ban, beach-cleanup volunteers collected 18% fewer plastic bags per kilometer than in the prior year. The commentator concludes that similar bans elsewhere would substantially reduce ocean plastic overall. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the commentator’s argument?
102. A museum director argues that extending weekend hours will increase total annual attendance. The director notes that during a three-month pilot in which the museum stayed open two extra hours on Saturdays, Saturday attendance rose by 22% compared with the same months the previous year. The director concludes that the extension will increase total annual attendance, not merely shift visits to Saturdays, and recommends making the change permanent. The director’s conclusion depends on which of the following?
103. A public health researcher argues that expanding urban bike-lane networks will reduce citywide obesity rates. The researcher cites a study of 12 neighborhoods in one city: after protected bike lanes were installed, bicycle counts on those corridors rose by 35% and, two years later, the average body mass index (BMI) of residents in those neighborhoods was 0.6 points lower than in 12 matched neighborhoods without new lanes. The researcher concludes that the bike lanes caused the BMI decrease and recommends reallocating road funds from car lanes to bike infrastructure. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the researcher’s argument?
104. A business article argues that remote work increases productivity, based on a survey of remote workers. Which of the following best describes the author's argument?
105. A nutrition blogger claims that eating breakfast leads to weight loss. The blogger observes that, in a survey of 2,000 adults, those who reported eating breakfast at least six days per week had a lower average body mass index (BMI) than those who reported skipping breakfast most days. The blogger concludes that people who want to lose weight should start eating breakfast daily.
A flaw in the blogger’s reasoning is that the blogger:
106. A transportation study concludes that investing in public transit reduces traffic congestion. The conclusion is based on traffic data from cities with extensive transit systems. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
107. A researcher claims that regular meditation reduces anxiety levels. The claim is based on self-reported data from participants in a meditation program. A flaw in the author's reasoning is that the author:
108. An environmental study indicates that planting more trees in urban areas can improve air quality. The conclusion is based on measurements of pollutants before and after tree planting. Which of the following best describes the author's argument?
109. An education researcher claims that assigning students to read printed textbooks rather than digital versions improves exam performance. In a study of 120 high school students, two classes used printed textbooks and two used digital textbooks for the same unit. The printed-textbook classes scored an average of 84% on the unit exam, while the digital-textbook classes averaged 78%. The researcher concludes that schools should switch back to printed textbooks to raise achievement.
A flaw in the researcher’s reasoning is that the researcher:
110. A university claims that increasing research funding leads to more patents. The claim is based on data from institutions with higher research budgets. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
111. A public health researcher argues that expanding urban bike-lane networks will reduce citywide obesity rates. The researcher cites a study of 12 neighborhoods in one city: after protected bike lanes were installed, bicycle counts on those corridors rose by 35% and, two years later, the average body mass index (BMI) of residents in those neighborhoods was 0.6 points lower than in 12 matched neighborhoods without new lanes. The researcher concludes that the bike lanes caused the BMI decrease and recommends reallocating road funds from car lanes to bike infrastructure. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the researcher’s argument?
112. A scientist claims that the introduction of wolves into a national park has restored ecological balance. The claim is based on observed changes in animal populations. A flaw in the author's reasoning is that the author:
113. An economist suggests that tax incentives for small businesses lead to job creation. The suggestion is based on data from regions with such incentives. Which assumption underlies the author's reasoning?
114. An environmental policy memo argues that banning single-use plastic bags will substantially reduce ocean plastic pollution. The memo cites that in a coastal county that enacted a ban, shoreline cleanups collected 30% fewer plastic bags the following year. It also notes that overall litter collected during cleanups declined by 5%. The memo concludes that similar bans elsewhere will substantially reduce ocean plastic pollution.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the memo’s argument?
115. A political analyst argues that voter turnout in elections increases with higher levels of political education. The conclusion is based on surveys from various regions. Which of the following best describes the author's argument?
116. A city transportation report argues that converting two downtown car lanes into protected bicycle lanes will reduce overall commute times. The report notes that after a pilot conversion on one avenue, average car travel time through the corridor increased by 2 minutes, but average bus travel time decreased by 6 minutes because buses no longer had to merge around cyclists. The report also states that bicycle counts on the avenue doubled and that 18% of former car commuters who worked within 3 miles reported switching to biking. The authors conclude that expanding protected bicycle lanes citywide will reduce overall commute times for most residents.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?
117. A city public-health report argues that establishing new neighborhood parks will reduce residents’ stress levels. The report cites a survey of 2,000 residents conducted in 2025: respondents living within a 10-minute walk of an existing park reported, on average, 18% lower scores on a standardized stress questionnaire than respondents living farther away. The authors add that park-adjacent neighborhoods also had 12% fewer stress-related clinic visits per capita. From these findings, the report concludes that building additional parks in park-poor neighborhoods will cause stress levels to fall citywide.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the report’s argument?
118. An education researcher claims that replacing printed textbooks with tablets improves student learning. In support, the researcher notes that after one high school switched all ninth-grade biology classes to tablets, average end-of-unit test scores rose from 74 to 81 over the following semester. The researcher concludes that the tablets caused the improvement and recommends that all schools adopt tablets to raise achievement.
A flaw in the researcher’s reasoning is that the researcher:
119. A historian argues that a particular empire’s decline was primarily caused by drought. The historian notes that tree-ring records indicate a 15-year period of unusually low rainfall beginning in 1120 CE, and that tax records show reduced grain shipments to the capital during the same period. The historian concludes that drought was the main driver of the empire’s political collapse in the mid-1100s.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the historian’s argument?
120. An environmentalist claims that renewable energy sources can meet global energy demands. The claim is based on projections of renewable energy growth. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
121. A study suggests that exposure to classical music enhances memory performance. The study observed participants who listened to classical music regularly. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's argument?
122. A city public-health director argues that expanding protected bike lanes will reduce traffic congestion. The director cites a 6-month pilot on three major corridors: after protected lanes were installed, average weekday car travel times on those corridors fell from 28 minutes to 24 minutes, and bicycle counts rose by 35%. The director concludes that the bike lanes caused the congestion reduction and recommends installing protected lanes citywide. However, during the same 6 months, a large employer on one corridor shifted 20% of employees to remote work, and the city also increased downtown parking prices by 15%.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the director’s argument?
123. A tech columnist argues that artificial intelligence will create more jobs than it replaces. The argument is based on trends in industries adopting AI. A flaw in the author's reasoning is that the author:
124. A study claims that regular exercise improves mental health. The study involved participants who exercised regularly and reported lower stress levels. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?